A mesostructured NETmix reactor was adapted to develop a continuous process to produce microcapsules, focusing on the steps commonly used in batch formulation: the emulsion and cure. Microcapsules were formed through a polycondensation process by coating Miglyol, a skin-hydrating emollient, with melamine-formaldehyde, which is a resistant shell material with surface smoothness. Different recirculation times were tested for the cure step. Microcapsules show a spherical shape and smooth membrane. Efficiencies of encapsulation of 75%, core contents of 70%, and diameters around 20 μm, ideal range for textile impregnation, were obtained. Scanning electron microscopy shows the integrity of microcapsules on textiles after impregnation and their flexible behavior. The thermogravimetric analysis confirmed the thermal stability of microcapsules up to 210 °C. With the NETmix reactor, it is possible to reduce the cure time of traditional batch formulation in 80%, producing microcapsules with similar characteristics in a continuous process.

Systems that contain a pure capacitance are not stable and thus the frequency response theorem cannot be applied. Here the response of a pure capacitive element is addressed and erroneous responses in some textbooks are pointed out. Then an easy way to obtain the frequency response of systems consisting of the series a pure capacitance and any stable system is presented.

Due to the increasing competition with finite natural supplies and to environmental concerns, all segments of society seek for sustainable and efficient resources. In this framework, microalgae have attracted significant interest worldwide as they are fast-growing microorganisms and do not compete with traditional crops for arable land. They present a unique nutritional composition with high content of proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, enzymes, pigments, and bioactive compounds. Moreover, these microorganisms play an essential role in Earth's sustainability since they convert CO2 into O2 and can be cultivated in harsh conditions. They are applied in several fields, such as food, feed, health & well-being, and cosmetics, contributing to the global economic growth, with several promising applications continuously emerging. Examples include agricultural-based products and biomaterials, their exploitation for wastewater treatment and CO2 removal from industrial flue gases, the use of their proteins as natural emulsifiers, and their pigments as natural colorants, where genetic engineering is being applied to potentiate the improvement of cultivation and specific characteristics. Due to all these scenarios, microalgae can be easily integrated within a biorefinery approach, being used as a feedstock for biofuels and bioenergy production, generating multiple products along the productive value chain, perfectly aligned with the bioeconomy framework. In this context, this chapter presents the microalgal research's past and current status by evaluating the evolution of the leading research fields over the years, supported by a bibliographic and bibliometric analysis. Particular emphasis is given to recent developments and perspectives driving the near future of the microalgae research.

Solid dispersion (SD) is a technique used to improve the solubility of poorly water-soluble compounds by dispersing them in a solid water-friendly carrier. Current trends indicate that natural-based alternatives are increasingly replacing synthetic carriers, benefiting the pharmaceutical industry, where they were first adopted, and paving the way for broader use in nutraceuticals and food applications, as regulations and consumer preferences drive the adoption of eco-friendly alternatives. In the food industry, SDs can address key challenges, such as enhancing water compatibility and stabilizing sensitive compounds, thereby facilitating the effective use of natural-based ingredients. Exploring natural carriers enables SDs to align with food industry priorities, enabling the development of functional ingredients, stable natural colorants, products with increased flavor retention, innovative packaging materials, and healthier, structured food analogues through Pickering emulsion technology. In this context, the review examines the path of SDs from pharma to food, beginning with a detailed examination of SD systems using both synthetic and natural carriers across the pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and food sectors. The review concludes with an in-depth discussion of emerging applications in the food industry, highlighting the potential of SDs to address formulation challenges and to foster sustainable, consumer-oriented innovations in modern food systems. To advance SD applications in food systems, future research should integrate sensory evaluation and address technical, regulatory, and formulation-performance gaps to ensure consumer-acceptable, high-quality innovations.

The awareness of sustainability approaches has focused attention on replacing synthetic emulsifiers with natural alternatives when formulating nanoemulsions. In this context, a comprehensive review of the different types of saponins being successfully used to form and stabilize nanoemulsions is presented, highlighting the most common natural sources and biosynthetic routes. Processes for their extraction and purification are also reviewed altogether with the recent advances for their characterization. Concerning the preparation of the nanoemulsions containing saponins, the focus has been initially given to screening methods, lipid phase used, and production procedures, but their characterization and delivery systems explored are also discussed. Most experimental outcomes showed that the saponins present high performance, but the challenges associated with the saponins’ broader application, mainly the standardization for industrial use, are identified. Future perspectives report, among others, the emerging biotechnological processes and the use of byproducts in a circular economy context.

An emulsion is a colloidal dispersion composed by a mixture of two immiscible liquids, being one the dispersed phase, as droplets, and the other one the continuous phase. In this work, a comparative study comprising the surfactants Tween 80 (synthetic surfactant) and Saponin (natural surfactant) and the oils Miglyol 812 and Sweet Almond was performed. The development of emulsions based on ternary phase diagrams showed that different phases can be formed giving rise to different formulations: microemulsions, gels, and mixtures with 1, 2 and 3 phases. The application of the HPH technique produced stable nanoemulsions with narrow distributions. Considering Tween 80, and comparing the two oils, Miglyol 812 gave rise to emulsions with lower particle size (0.023μm), comparatively to Sweet Almond Oil (1.009μm). This difference can be related with the oil viscosity, which is lower for Miglyol 812. Comparing the two surfactants, natural Saponin was very effective in the o/w composition range.

The simultaneous azo couplings of 1- and 2-naphthols with diazotized sulfanilic acid have been widely used to study the influence of mixing on the product distribution of fast chemical reactions with fluids of low viscosities. The aim of this work is to assess the micromixing performance of the mixing chamber of a RIM (Reaction Injection Molding) machine, when high viscosity fluids are used. The mixing characterization study in the RIM machine has shown that an increase of Reynolds number, over a very short range, 100<Re<400, enhances significantly the micromixing intensity inside the mixing chamber. The transition from a fully segregated regime to the self-sustainable chaotic flow, at Reynolds number values of 100–125, was also observed. Furthermore, it is shown that the iso-momentum condition between the opposed jets in RIM is fundamental to ensure the continuous presence of a self-sustainable chaotic flow regime, at which the best mixing conditions are obtained.

Pickering emulsions (PEs) have attracted attention in different fields, such as food, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, mainly due to their good physical stability. PEs are a promising strategy to develop functional products since the particles' oil and water phases can act as carriers of active compounds, providing multiple combinations potentiating synergistic effects. Moreover, they can answer the sustainable and green chemistry issues arising from using conventional emulsifier-based systems. In this context, this review focuses on the applicability of safe inorganic solid particles as emulsion stabilisers, discussing the main stabilisation mechanisms of oil-water interfaces. In particular, it provides evidence for hydroxyapatite (HAp) particles as Pickering stabilisers, discussing the latest advances. The main technologies used to produce PEs are also presented. From an industrial perspective, an effort was made to list new productive technologies at the laboratory scale and discuss their feasibility for scale-up. Finally, the advantages and potential applications of PEs in the food industry are also described. Overall, this review gathers recent developments in the formulation, production and properties of food-grade PEs based on safe inorganic solid particles.

C-phycocyanin (C-PC), a water-soluble blue pigment, is the primary phycobiliprotein in Spirulina. In this study, Spirulina was immobilized in calcium-alginate (SAC) beads as an innovative method to recover C-PC in the crosslinking bath while retaining the biomass within the beads. This approach simplifies the separation process and reduces costs. SAC beads were prepared via ionic gelation with alginate and CaCl2 at 2 % (PC2) and 4 % (PC4) concentrations. Different Spirulina to CaCl2 (S:CA) ratios (1:33, 1:42, 1:83, 1:125 w:v) were tested. PC4 extracts surpassed the food-grade purity threshold (≥ 0.7), achieving the highest purity of 0.83 at a 1:42 S:CA ratio. For PC2, the highest purity was 0.68, observed at a 1:83 S:CA ratio. Overall, this method effectively re- leases C-PC into the CaCl2 bath, attaining food-grade purity with significant extraction yields (> 50 mg/g biomass). Additionally, the SAC beads exhibited high protein levels (> 25 g/100 g d.w.) and can be further utilized within a biorefinery framework, either directly as a food supplement or for cascade extractions to recover the remaining lipid and protein fractions.

Given the evolving trends in consumption, Pickering emulsions are emerging as a promising solution for functional and healthier foods, highlighting the need to diversify particle stabilisers. This study assessed the potential of curcumin-based solid dispersions (SDs) prepared with natural polymers (pectin, maltodextrin, Arabic gum, potato starch, and k-carrageenan) as Pickering stabilisers. Among these, pectin-curcumin SDs (contact angle = 48.0 ± 3.6◦) demonstrated effective emulsion stabilisation, as confirmed by confocal microscopy. The impact of oil volume fraction (φ = 0.20–0.70) and SD concentration (1.0–5.0 % wt.) on emulsion stability was evaluated. An intermediate φ (0.45) consistently minimised creaming index (CI = 0–16.67 %) and droplet size (D[4,3] =2.53–4.12 μm). Complete reduction of creaming (CI = 0 %) was achieved at high SD concentration with low φ or low SD concentration with high φ, leading to improved stability. The three produced optimised formulations exhibited distinct colour properties (L* = 64.06–72.00, a* = 11.09–12.50, b* = 55.10–60.70), with hues ranging from yellow to orange, highlighting their potential for natural colouring applications. Rheological behaviour varied from gel-like (G’ > G”) to viscoelastic (G’ = G”), broadening their potential in food formulations. Higher SD concentrations with lower/intermediate φ produced structured, gel-like emulsions suitable for sauces or spreads. In contrast, lower SD concentrations with higher φ yielded fluid emulsions for dressings or beverages. These findings highlight the feasibility of SD-based Pickering emulsions for designing stable (≥30 days), visually appealing, and texturally versatile food products.